This might be especially beneficial for the 15вЂ“30% of stroke patients who are permanently disabled ( Lloyd-Jones et al., 2009) because of the ability to connect BCIs to function electrical stimulation. To improve prognosis from stroke disability, neural plasticity is seen as a potential rehabilitation target ( Dimyan and Cohen, 2011). Patients are often left with motor impairments following stroke and experience balance and mobility issues. Stroke, in particular, is a significant field where BCIs can have an important function. They can be used to treat a wide range of conditions ( Fig.В 1 and TableВ 1). Modern BCIs have the ability to revolutionize clinical care. Power of neurotechnology Uses of brainвЂ“computer interfaces In this review, we discuss the ethical dilemmas associated with the use of these neurotechnologies that attempt to control neuronal electrical activity. Subsequently, the following years saw researchers become better at reading and influencing the electrical signals of the brain for desired effects. As well as reading these signals, pioneers looked to control neural tissue by applying non-invasive and invasive electrical currents so as to better treat clinical conditions ( Delgado et al., 1952 Horgan, 2005 Utz et al., 2010). In 1973, Vidal, a UCLA professor, proposed a system whereby EEG signals could be translated into computer control signals-leading him to coin the term brainвЂ“computer interface (BCI) and giving rise to a technique to read brain signals ( Vidal, 1973). In 1969, Fetz demonstrated the role of operant conditioning in enabling control of single cortical neurones ( Fetz and Baker, 1973). In 1968, Wyrwicka and Sterman (1968) recorded and translated sensorimotor rhythms into sensory feedback. Such early fascination with controlling electrical activity of nerves was without the ethical constraints of the future but laid the foundation for modern techniques that allows manipulation of the brain without the constraints of the past.ДЇollowing CushingвЂ™s operation, a slew of firsts quickly followed. Encouraging procedures such as this one demonstrated the willingness of pioneering surgeons to be bold, even callous, in moulding anatomy and challenging physiology. The symptoms steadily improved, facial asymmetry markedly improved and the paralysis diminished. Upon transplantation between the facial and accessory nerves, the patient was sutured, sent home and armed with a galvanic battery for electrical stimulation to promote exercise of facial muscles. He administered the anaesthetic and proceeded to incise along the anterior border of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, exposing the accessory nerve before cutting through the posterior border of the parotid gland to expose the facial nerve. Cushing described the operation in detail. The patient reported a number of symptoms: sensory and motor deficits to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue right-sided lachrymation and paralysis to the facial muscles and platysma. CushingвЂ™s patient, a 30-year-old male, had received a bullet wound, which entered the skull through the right-sided mastoid process and had proceeded to damage the lower part of the fallopian aqueduct, irreparably damaging the facial nerve in the process. In one of the earliest published reports of the Annals of surgery, Cushing (1903), often referred to as the father of neurosurgery, reported a successful case of nerve anastomosis in the spring of 1902. BrainвЂ“computer interface, deep brain stimulation, transcranial direct current stimulation, ethics, law IntroductionДЇascination with the brain has existed since Napoleonic times.

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